想要“像怪咖一样思考”,就从这三个词开始。
你确定辞职是个坏主意吗?在《像怪咖一样思考》一书中,斯蒂芬·J·杜布纳和史蒂文·D·列维特认为,我们常常对自己自认为知道的事情过于自信,他们建议我们用不同的思维方式来解决问题和做出决策。
沃顿商学院管理学教授亚当·M·格兰特最近在杜布纳作为“沃顿作家系列讲座”客座讲师访问校园期间,就他的新书对他进行了采访。在这次采访中,杜布纳探讨了为什么我们应该更频繁地说“我不知道”。
以下是经过编辑的对话记录。
亚当·格兰特:您的书读起来引人入胜,在国际上引起了轰动。您的最新作品是《像怪咖一样思考》 。是什么促使您创作了这本书?
斯蒂芬·J·杜布纳:我是一名记者,(在《魔鬼经济学》出版之前)我曾写过一篇关于史蒂夫·列维特和他那套奇特的经济研究的文章。当时我正在写一本完全不同的书,主题是金钱心理学……我对我们现在所说的行为经济学很感兴趣。
我写了关于列维特的文章。后来有人觉得我们合作会是个好主意。我们就合作了,写了《魔鬼经济学》 ,这本书非常成功。我们当初并没有预料到它会成功……然后我们开始思考:“我们还要再写一本吗?”我们花了大约两年时间来决定是否要写,以及是否能为第二本书找到好的新素材,最终我们找到了。至于第三本,我们几乎可以肯定不会再写了,因为我们不想过度开发,这与我们的出版商和经纪人的意愿相悖。任何人看到一个系列作品摆在面前,都想把它据为己有,加以利用。我们的想法略有不同。我们觉得我们已经从中获利,而且很幸运能走到今天这一步。除非我们有真正引以为傲的素材,否则我们不想过度开发。同样,我们花了几年时间才构思出另一本书的框架,那就是这第三本书, 《像怪胎一样思考》……
我们经常收到人们的来信——主要是电子邮件,这很好。在数字革命带来的所有事物中,最酷、最简单的莫过于你可以直接联系到你所读书籍的作者。以前你得写信给出版社,然后祈祷他们转交,但他们从来不会这么做。我们收到人们各种各样的问题、疑问和咨询,都是关于这个世界如何运作的。我们不可能一一解答。这很困难。回复一封邮件可能需要——别说一天了——几个月的研究。
与其徒劳地尝试解答这些问题的一小部分,我们不如思考:“如果我们能写一本书,让全世界,或者任何想和我们一样思考的人,都能从中受益呢?”我们想要制定一套规则,一套解决问题的蓝图。这本书并非总是直接解决问题,但这才是我们主要的目标。这本书正是如此。它旨在以一种有趣、引人入胜且实用的方式,帮助人们思考世界的真实运作方式,思考激励机制的真实运作方式,以及人们对激励机制的真实反应,而不是他们口头上说的。这样,无论你是在商业、政府还是家庭中,试图解决一个大问题还是小问题,你或许都能提高解决问题的成功率。这就是我们的理念。
格兰特:嗯,你确实实现了这些目标。你的出发点是,我们所有人都应该比现在更频繁地说出三个字,那就是“我不知道”。这个想法从何而来?
杜布纳:嗯,我觉得这主要是因为我的合著者史蒂夫·列维特和你一样,身处学术界。而我是一名作家,我成年后一直从事新闻工作。如果我们假装自己无所不知,那我们俩都找不到工作。我作为记者的工作宗旨就是找到那些了解有趣、有价值或鲜为人知的事情的人,向他们请教,努力探寻真相。所以,你必须承认自己有所不知。
“我们一直被灌输一种观念,认为放弃就是一种失败。我们怎么知道这是真的呢?”
优秀的学术研究——就像优秀的医学研究、物理学或工程学研究一样——在于探索那些你尚未找到答案的问题。一旦你抱着这种心态,你的研究方法就会截然不同。你会正视自己已知的知识(可能并不多)以及未知的知识。然后,为了弄清你需要知道什么,你会建立一个实验框架,收集反馈等等。
现在,虽然这听起来完全是显而易见的——就像我刚才说的那样——但现代社会,尤其是在商业和政府领域,存在着许多群体,他们总是假装自己知道问题的答案或解决方案。我理解这一点。我明白其中的激励机制。我明白声誉的重要性。没有人想当无知者或笨蛋。如果我是一名政治家,有人说:“州长某某某,参议员某某某,我们刚刚发生了一起可怕的校园枪击案。如果一切皆有可能——如果所有选项都摆在你们面前——你们会怎么做来防止此类事件再次发生?”
政客们通常会这样回答:“我来告诉你,我会做这三件事,这样就能解决问题。” 但如果你追问:“你有什么证据吗?有什么经验依据表明这真的有效吗?” 通常,我不得不说,答案是否定的。在某些领域——比如政界和商界——你会看到这种情况,因为那里的激励机制不同。在商界,人们有很大的动力把事情做好,但同时也存在着很大的——姑且这么说吧——同侪压力,大家都想成为那个“知道内情”、拥有“计划”的人。
现在公司经常会遵循一个非常基本的原则或做法:他们会说,“我们需要制定一个计划或解决方案。让我们把公司最重要的20个人召集到一个房间里,花一个小时”——这可是20个人工时——“让我们找出最好的方案,最好的想法,然后把所有资源都投入到这个方案中。” 这种做法成功的概率有多大?如果这是科学研究,它能取得好结果的概率有多大?几乎为零。
谷歌就是一个反例,它允许工程师拿出20%的业余时间从事自己的项目——其理念是,鼓励大家提出很多想法,其中大部分可能并不理想,但要让筛选机制发挥作用,让人们通过科学或实证的方法去探索真正有效的学习途径。之后,经过一些实验和小规模的研究,再考虑投入资源。
我认为企业在这方面需要做得更好。但我认为许多企业正在朝着正确的方向发展。数字化革命对此大有裨益,因为现在收集数据、进行A/B测试或A到Z测试变得如此便捷且成本低廉,从而可以了解哪些方法真正有效。
格兰特:你最近有没有看到一些比较出色的检测案例,代表着这场变革朝着积极的方向发展,而不是像我们都能列举出的那些本应基于证据却没有的糟糕决定?有没有什么特别突出的例子?
“当人们放弃那些他们原本非常担心放弃的事情时,他们的生活往往会变得更好一些。即使生活没有变得更糟,你也可以说这是一个相当不错的结果。”
杜布纳:我举个例子……几年前我做过一些相关报道。我不知道效果如何。我喜欢这个想法,因为是由联邦政府来做的,而联邦政府通常都很糟糕——我的意思是,他们是最差的。仔细想想,这很合理。从某种意义上说,他们理论上处于最高层——50个州政府以及它们下属的所有地方政府。所以,他们实际上无法深入到微观层面。我理解这一点。
但我认为他们在教育领域推行的“力争上游”计划是个非常好的主意。当然,我不知道它最终效果如何,但首先,他们设立了一个竞赛机制,这意味着激励措施应该比没有激励措施或者我们习以为常的某种负面强化方式更有效。教育部长阿恩·邓肯和总统巴拉克·奥巴马对各州说:“我们需要思考如何改进或重新思考我们的教育体系。”相信我,我可以就此话题滔滔不绝地讲上好几年,因为教育是一个非常复杂的问题,涉及诸多投入和产出。人们很容易寻找灵丹妙药:提高教师工资、解散工会、缩小班级规模等等。每个人都喜欢这些灵丹妙药。
但这情况非常复杂。教育部说:“我们会走访所有50个州。我们希望你们每个人都能想出一个好的项目、一个好主意、一个行之有效的解决方案。如果成功,我们会支付报酬,而且很有可能我们会推广并使其标准化。” 这才是正确的思路。从小处着手。不要假装自己知道答案。要勇于尝试,并收集反馈。这些其实都是《像怪咖一样思考》这本书的核心理念。
格兰特:你在书中举了一些非常精彩的例子,这些例子可能超出了大多数读者自身愿意尝试的范围。例如,你竟然让一些人同意让你随机安排他们去做一些事情,比如要求加薪、辞职,甚至是和伴侣分手。你这么做的逻辑是什么?
杜布纳:这源于一期播客节目。我们制作了一档名为“魔鬼经济学广播”的播客和公共广播节目。我非常喜欢其中一期节目。它的主题很棒,因为它融合了数据和实证思维,以及叙事性的故事讲述,而这正是我的风格。这期节目名为“放弃的益处”。它在某种程度上提出了一个经济学论点,即我们大多数人都被灌输了不要放弃的观念。我们被灌输了一种观念:放弃是一种失败,一种失败的表现。我们怎么知道这是真的呢?
“如果你花五分钟时间思考一下总成本和机会成本,那么你就能得出不同的结论。”
想想看,如果是一个项目、一份工作、一场战争、一段感情……你可以选择放弃,但由于一些代价、同侪压力以及你自身的道德立场,你可能并不想放弃。我们试图探究放弃的益处。我们认为,放弃的益处非常显著,而且人们往往不擅长估算机会成本——比如,如果他们放弃,他们本来可以做些什么等等。
但事实是,这方面的数据很难获取,因为你不可能走进一个大型学区,然后说:“我要挑选一千个孩子,把他们完全混在一起,确保两边的成绩都一样,然后随机强迫其中一半辍学,不让他们再回去上学。之后10年、20年、30年后,看看他们的人生轨迹如何。”这或许是一种实验方法,但我们当然不可能这么做。
那些选择辍学的人和那些坚持上学的人往往是截然不同的群体。因此,事后将他们进行比较并不恰当。所以,我们创建了一个名为“魔鬼经济学实验”的网站,专门为那些面临抉择的人提供参考,例如:“我应该辞职重返校园读研吗?”“我应该参军还是继续工作?”“我应该离开我的男朋友/女朋友/丈夫/妻子吗?”“我应该纹身吗?”
如果他们真的拿不定主意,而且确实犹豫不决,我们会主动提出帮他们抛硬币决定。我们唯一的要求是,他们事先填写一份调查问卷,告诉我们他们是否按照抛硬币的方式做了——因为我们无权强迫他们这么做。[我们说]之后会跟进并进行调查,了解他们的最终决定。
类别繁多,结果各异,而且相关研究尚未完成——但简而言之,当人们放弃那些他们原本非常担心放弃的事情时,他们的生活往往会有所改善。即使情况没有恶化太多,你也可以说这是一个相当不错的选择。我们都应该把放弃视为一个非常好的选择。但当你脑海里萦绕着文斯·隆巴迪的名言“放弃者永不获胜,胜利者永不放弃”(这句话其实并非隆巴迪本人所说)时,放弃就变得困难了。还有温斯顿·丘吉尔的告诫:“无论大事小事,无论轻重缓急,都永不放弃。”
你身边都是些优秀的人,他们的鼓励会让你觉得,“天哪,如果我启动一个项目,就必须把它完成。” 但如果你花五分钟时间,认真思考一下总成本和机会成本,你就能得出完全不同的结论。这正是我们当时努力想要达到的目标。
格兰特:最后,除了说“我不知道”之外,在创作《魔鬼经济学》这本书、广播节目、播客、电影的整个过程中,你从中获得的关于如何像怪人一样思考的最大教训是什么?
“奇怪的是,正确并不能赢得很多争论。很多人在很多事情上都是对的,但他们的观点却无法得到满足。”
杜布纳:这更多的是一种哲学层面的回答,而非战术或战略层面的回答。对我而言,挑战始终在于如何将经验、科学或数据——无论你怎么称呼它——与直觉、人性或人文关怀——无论你怎么称呼它——融合起来。
我的意思是,尤其是在大数据时代,……我们往往认为,如果能获得代表一百万个决策的大量数据,就比问三个人他们做了什么决策要好得多。我非常相信这一点,也非常赞赏我们所有人运用汇总数据来提炼出最重要真相的本能,但我同时也知道,我们是人,而且……我们在很多方面都存在偏见。
即使你能告诉我或者我能告诉你最万无一失的决策策略、最佳决策、最佳策略或最佳数据组合,你仍然可能因为很多原因而失败。这是因为你现在运用这种策略或提供这些激励措施的对象,他们的反应并不符合你对问题的设想。
这需要极大的谦逊。政府官员、商界人士、学术界人士、新闻界人士——各行各业的人——对此早已习以为常。……当我们提出一项方案并付诸实施时,人们往往会立刻响应,说:“好,我们现在就这么做。”这赋予了我们巨大的权力和权威。但伴随权力而来的,是谦逊的必要性。我们需要明白,当我们做出这样的决定,推出各种激励措施时,无论这些措施大小、政府机构还是非政府机构,最终都会影响到其他人。决策者往往不会认真思考这些措施会如何影响这些人的生活,或者他们会如何回应这些激励措施等等。
所以,对我来说,这就是平衡点。既要尽可能地保持科学,也要明白,“即使我能用科学证据告诉100个人‘嘿,你真的应该这么做’,其中90个人可能都有充分的理由不想这么做。他们可能错了,我可能对。但这并不意味着我就能赢得争论。奇怪的是,正确并不能赢得很多争论。很多人在很多事情上都是对的,但他们的观点却无法得到满足。”
这才是最棘手的部分。我目前正在制作一期关于流感疫苗的广播播客节目——内容非常简单。流感疫苗相当有效,大约有效率在60%左右。流感和肺炎一直是美国十大死因之一,但大多数人对此并不了解或没有意识到。然而,很多应该接种流感疫苗的人却没有接种。为什么呢?
这真是一个难题。我们费尽心思,从行为、公关和财务等各个层面进行决策,试图弄明白为什么这么简单的事情却如此难以实现?我始终铭记于心的是:聪明的投资者或许很聪明,但除非他们能真正提升所有人的行为,否则他们的投入就毫无价值。
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I liked the interview but these guys might do better to avoid hot button topics with data sources that are politically charged. The formula succeed in "freakanomics" when they took on a correlation to abortion and crime. They based their reasons behind solid numbers. At the time it was not a stretch to assume that the published violent crime rate and abortion numbers were accurate, which allowed them to make a valid and persuasive argument. However, vaccines are a hot button topic right now. Wikipedia might call vaccines "an encyclopedia entry under-attack." This is a scenario where edits are made poignantly after certain topic becomes hotly debated. Suddenly the figures are questionable because people are willing to fudge the numbers. People from all fields begin publishing BS depending on what side they are on. At the end of the day you are often left with polarized gibberish masquerading as true data. Long story short, I wouldn't trust the 60% and cdc 'top 10 leading death' stat that Dubner suggests implies an irrational contradiction in the way society behaves. The real solid data will not become known until this issue dies down. This is true for any hot button issue.
[Hide Full Comment]We all know that the KNOWLEDGE IS INFINITE AND IS THE REAL POWER. More importantly lies the application of knowledge, well in time and place as needed to explore the new world, with much more surges of development, scientifically and technologically.
Saying I don't know is one thing, but what do we know for sure?
We know plenty that is veiled in denial and deception. Money cannot help humanity or any one individual. And we need help asap. We don't have the answers for the nightmare that nuclear radioactive waste is posing worldwide, as it endangers all life forms and everyone and every creature, all soils, waters, and air on our planet earth home. (And radioactive waste is just the worst catastrophic disaster, that we have brought onto ourselves, waiting to happen). If we continue to reject peace worldwide, and keep pursuing the worthless rewards of inflated and disappearing money and domination over others and over all of nature, we will also compromise the one collective hope that we have of actually saving ourselves, our planet, love and life. (And some of us are going to have a hard time of it individually on our own).
And that help is beyond.
They (as in higher and wiser cosmic civilizations, probably also older, maybe much older) are not going to assist us as long as we both individually (our individual free will to choose) and/ or collectively (our choice as a human race) continue to reject respect, decency, peace, justice, mercy, truth, and nature (of which human beings are only ONE interdependent part), and also continue to reject the knowledge and wisdom of natural, healing, cooling, and life-supporting processes, particularly energy that is FREELY provided by our good universe on a worldwide scale. Natural processes includes natural and organic and sustainable food, seed, and crop production, the humane raising of farm animals and/or insects, and also includes healthy and life-supporting non-lethal and non-poisonous-to-all-life (human beings, animals, plants, insects, birds, fish, soils, waters, etc.) chemical products and drugs. The days of believing and behaving as if we are not our own worst enemy are past.
Higher beings are just that. We are going to have to start THINKING and ACTING from higher states of being. No higher universal beings are going to help us when we continue to refuse to help ourselves, and also choose to reject the evolution into higher beings ourselves, and stop deliberately killing and demanding to so-call profit from all life on our one shared planet with imagined superiority over others and over creation, and/ or for sham so-called products, profits, and rewards that are physically lethal to all of creation, and additionally physically and spiritually damning to both customers and sellers, victims and perpetrators.
[Hide Full Comment]This is a wake up call.
They also read thoughts.
Better begin thinking and acting from a center of respect and dignity now because ...
some cosmic clock is ticking that is in rhythm with our increasingly-radioactive, over-heating,
exploited, plundered, and dying earth.
Saying "I don't know" would end a million completely idiotic arguments. The level of vitriol over economic theories that none of us understands and theological questions that are beyond answers is mind boggling.
"The smart money may be smart, but unless it can deliver on something that really raises everyone’s behavior then it’s not worth that much.
Sometimes it is a good idea to quit a job or relationship. And yet, will it ever be a good idea to quit calling for the rescue of the imperiled health and vitality of our planet home that we all share as one, while it is still our current and common reality? We are destroying, practically overnight, the capacity of our planet to provide life to humans, animals, fish, birds, insects, and plants. Contrary to popular opinion, money is not smart about life and love, both of which are freely provided by our good universe, along with many other "truly free and good" things. Money is only smart about itself, in creating more of itself no matter how phantom, deceptive, or illusionary it's actual value. And yet, we and all of creation pay the true and real cost of money in our wasted time and labor (living out false livelihoods and lifestyles while chasing after the ever-disappearing value of our money), and in our damaged, destroyed, and depleted natural resources and cultural wealth, even burying and suppressing ground-breaking knowledge, new energy, and technologies that have the potential to revolutionize living and save our world and planet, keeping human civilization locked in ignorance, all to maintain the grand deception that money has true and lasting value. Simultaneously, we are robbing the spiritual heart and soul of our own humanity by perpetrating more and more force, commodification, manipulation, arrogance, warfare, and violence onto human populations, animals, farm animals, birds, fish, insects, and plants, crops, seeds, heirloom seeds, forests, ancient forests, soils, rivers, lakes, aquifers, wetlands, bayous, oceans, air, the atmosphere and the ionosphere.
[Hide Full Comment]What we should be quitting is money, and quit wasting our lives working for what is not contributing to, but taking from, life and love, and start saving ourselves and our planet.
That would be smart..
Our true wealth is our healthy human connections to local community and to the natural creation of all of life, and the health, diversity, and vibrancy of our natural world. We could be choosing to seek: a resource-based economy; organic, gmo-free living in harmony with nature; natural laws and natural processes including all the suppressed implosion and "free and good" energy technologies that are provided by the universe; studying, learning, and integrating biotecture techniques for processing sewage on site rather than into lands or water sources; constructing with natural earth, thermal mass, passive-solar, and ancient cob-building techniques; rethinking and rebuilding our crumbling and non self-sufficient and unsustainable, wasteful dead-zone city, town, and suburb neighborhoods, and preserving or restoring all undeveloped lands, wetlands, forests, rivers, lakes, coastlines, meadows, and open space to support the thriving of a diversity of healthy organic life, organisms, creatures, plants, trees, insects, birds, and fish. Our true wealth is also healthy and vibrant, engaged and connected, self-sufficient and self-sustainable local community, and providing for our own real needs of food, clothing, shelter, and social community (including educational and medical needs) at the local level.
Opening our eyes to a new paradigm for living involves quitting what is clearly not working to our advantage, or to the advantage of others, or to the benefit of all of creation. Even those with mountains of monetary wealth and worldly power will also inevitably lose in the perilous end that is being rapidly forced upon us and all of creation, living a little longer perhaps, but surely with mounting suffering and death all around them, like forlorn and forsaken survivors on lifeboats, watching all of creation, life and love slowly suffer and die until it is their turn, and leaving behind a legacy and inheritance of more of the same - a suffering, poisoned, mutated, polluted, depleted, plundered, barren, and dying earth for their children, grandchildren, and all children.
One thing that we all do know unquestionably is that time is swiftly passing by, and so is the destruction of life and all of creation on our one, shared planet earth home.
By letting go of money and the illusion of it's need or value, and conversely rescuing, holding onto, and restoring our true and vital wealth, we could begin to save, rather than continue to destroy, life and love, and truly start to live beyond mere and miserly, fear and scarcity-based, violent and destructive existence for the first time in our human history. We could choose finally to stop sleeping the sleep of death, and wake up.
We could choose to work for our real and lasting, free and common, truly good wealth, which is love and life on our one shared planet earth home, and save ourselves and future generations, save all of creation while we can, and before it is too late.
That would be smart, very smart.